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| No. | Country | Samples and study locations | Study aims | Highlights on important findings | Reference |
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| 1 | France | Fungal aerosols were collected from homes damaged by wood-rotting fungi in Lower Normandy, France. Damaged homes were described as having high moisture content, lack of ventilation, and improper renovation | The fungal contamination in homes harmed by wood-decaying and airborne molds, Serpula lacrymans, was described in this study. Mycotoxins in the air were measured using HPLC-MS/MS, and the Ames test was used to determine the mutagenicity of fungal aerosols. Fungal species growing on building materials were studied using cultural and molecular methods, mycotoxins in the air were measured using HPLC-MS/MS, and the Ames test was used to determine the mutagenicity of fungal aerosols | Results showed that Serpula lacrymans was detected in the air for one-third of homes with sometimes the co-occurrence of other ligninolytic basidiomycetes species like Donkioporia expansa. Various molds in the air (117 species) and on materials (103 species) were identified including a recurrent species like Aspergillus versicolor and Penicillium fellutanum. Airborne culturable fungal levels were measured up to 5.8 × 105 CFU/m3. Alternariol and/or ochratoxin A mycotoxins were observed in 4 homes, but no mutagenic activity was found | [21] |
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| 2 | Italy | Atmospheric particulate matter was sampled in wet indoor environment, workplaces with previous flood and fungal spores detected, and outdoor environments. No specific sampling location was mentioned | Screening of mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol, aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A, T-2 toxin, zearalenone, and sterigmatocystin) in indoor and outdoor environments, airborne particulate matter was developed, and method performance data were presented | Single-step extraction using optimal solvent mixture (acetonitrile: water at 90 : 10) utilizing the accelerated solvent extraction method and purified using solid-phase extraction via Strata C18-M cartridges. Good linearity was obtained for each mycotoxin at different concentrations by correlation coefficients ranging from 0.994 to 0.999. The apparent recoveries from HPLC/ESI-MS/MS analysis in the MRM mode were >70% with a 10% CV, and the optimized process allowed simultaneous separation of analyte in less than 10 minutes | [39] |
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| 3 | France | Bioaerosol samples were collected from cattle sheds located in Normandy | To analyze fungal contamination of bioaerosols collected in a dairy shed during two periods of 10 days each, investigate the toxigenic capacities of Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus flavus group isolates, and use the Ames test to determine the mutagenic properties of bioaerosol samples | Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus fumigatus, Penicillium chrysogenum, Stachybotrys chartarum, and the allergenic species Ulocladium chartarum and Cladosporium cladosporioides were the most common in the air. Between the two study periods, the median CFU/m3 ranged from 6.48 to 76.4, which exhibited significant differences between species. During straw processing, there was a peak of fungal contamination. In vitro A. flavus isolates do not produce aflatoxin, while A. fumigatus isolates do produce gliotoxin, verruculogen, and fumagillin. Aflatoxin B1 (0.09 ng/filter) and B2 (0.07 ng/filter) were found in bioaerosols at concentrations below LOQ. Results showed that farmers may be exposed to Stachybotrys chartarum during ordinary barn work | [22] |
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| 4 | Finland | Airborne dust samples were collected from surfaces above floor level of single-family homes across Finland | In this work, sample materials from severely moisture-damaged dwellings were subjected to a multianalyte tandem mass spectrometry-based technique. The goal is to provide a qualitative and quantitative description of the various microbial metabolites found in the samples | Indoor samples for at least one of the 186 analytes analyzed yielded 69 positive results, with up to 33 different microbial metabolites discovered. Hazardous bacterial metabolites were discovered in indoor samples, along with their co-occurrence with mycotoxins. The bacterial chemicals including monactin, nonactin, staurosporine, and valinomycin were found in moist building materials, whereas chloramphenicol was found in high concentrations in house dusts, including settled airborne dust. Streptomyces spp., a species of microbes that is considered a moisture damage indicator in indoor environments, produces these bacterial metabolites, which are highly bioactive chemicals | [25] |
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| 5 | Malaysia | Airborne dust was collected from randomly selected secondary schools and classrooms in Johor Bahru, Malaysia. A questionnaire with standardized questions was used for health assessment in 15 randomly selected pupils from each class | The researchers wanted to look for specific fungal DNA, hairy pet allergies, and mycotoxins in dust samples from Malaysian schools and see if there were any correlations with kids’ respiratory health | Results indicated that fungus DNA and cat allergens were abundant, and students had a high rate of doctor-diagnosed asthma and respiratory problems. The finding of positive associations with specific DNA from the fungal species A. versicolor and the bacteria Streptomyces spp., despite the lack of a link between total fungal DNA and respiratory health, highlights the importance of analyzing specific microbes when studying respiratory health effects. The use of qPCR to analyze fungal and bacterial DNA collected using the Petri dish sample method appears to be a promising tool for monitoring indoor mold exposure because it can detect both general and DNA sequences regardless of whether organisms are alive or dead | [28] |
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| 6 | Finland The Netherlands Spain | The settled dust swab and moldy spot surface swab samples were collected from different locations in school buildings in Spain, the Netherlands, and Finland | The study measured both buildings with and without moisture damage and/or dampness observations. More than 180 analytes were targeted in settled dust and surface swab samples using the LC/MS-based methodology | The results showed that 42%, 58%, and 44% of all samples collected in Spanish, Dutch, and Finnish schools, respectively, were positive for at least one of the metabolites analyzed. The frequency of microbial secondary metabolite determination (except for emodin, certain enniatins, and physcion) was low and ranges from 10% and below of positive samples. Thirty different fungal and bacterial secondary metabolites were found in samples. Some differences in the metabolite profiles were observed between countries and between index and reference school buildings. A major finding was that settled dust from contaminated schools contained additional higher levels of microbial secondary metabolites than dust samples from noncontaminated schools | [29] |
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| 7 | Croatia | Indoor air samples of selected apartments, basements, and grain mills were collected in Croatia | The distribution and species diversity of sterigmatocystin (STC)-producing Aspergilli from the section Versicolores in the indoor air of apartments (APs), basements (BS), and grain mills (GMs) in Croatia, as well as their cytotoxic potency, are presented in this study | Total airborne fungal species detected in sampling locations: 0.7–20% in the AP, 11–55% in the BS, and 0–2% in the GM. Dominant species were A. jensenii and A. creber, followed by A. protuberus, A. venenatus, A. tennesseensis, A. amoenus, A. griseoaurantiacus, and 3 undescribed species. Species that produced STC: A. griseoaurantiacus (208.29 μg/mL), A. jensenii (1.192–133.63 μg/mL), and A. protuberus and A. tennesseensis (0.117–2.749 μg/mL). Lower species diversity was obtained in the GM with relatively high STC levels (0.06–2.35 μg/g) in 52% samples. STC cannot be fully attributed to Aspergilli (Versicolores). Human lung A549 cells and THP-1 macrophage-like cells were cytotoxic to STC and most STC-producing aspergilli at relatively low concentrations, indicating that humans are at high risk during chronic exposure | [30] |
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| 8 | Poland | Urban agglomeration in central Poland: Scrapping and airborne dust samples were collected from residences selected from flats by a simple random selection method. Selection was based on the existence of mycelium on solid surfaces in the flats | The major goal was to determine the toxinogenic potential of fungus isolated from moldy surfaces in residential rooms in an urban agglomeration, remote from flooded areas in a mild temperate zone | This study confirmed on capability of producing sterigmatocystin and roquefortine C by growing Aspergillus versicolor and Penicillium chrysogenum, respectively, in mixture of fungi from scraping and pure cultures in laboratory conditions. Results shows that sterigmatocystin was produced by 8/13 isolated strains of Aspergillus versicolor (2.1–235.9 μg/g), while 4/10 of isolated strains of Penicillium chrysogenum produced roquefortine (12.9–27.6 μg/g). Sterigmatocystin was determined (3.1–1683.2 μg/g) in 11/13 scraping samples positive with Aspergillus versicolor, while Penicillium chrysogenum was determined in 3/10 of samples with roquefortine C (0.9–618.9 μg/g). Mycotoxins in all air dust and scraping samples were detected below LOD, indicating minor exposure to residents in moldy flats of urban agglomeration situated far from flooded territories | [27] |
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| 9 | Malaysia | Settled airborne dust was collected from randomly selected 8 primary schools in Johor Bahru, Malaysia. 462 students from four classes of grade two were selected to participate in the questionnaire survey | To see if there was a link between rhinitis and other types of weekly SBS symptoms among junior high school students in Johor Bahru, Malaysia, and levels of cat allergen (Fel d 1), two mycotoxins (verrucarol and sterigmatocystin), and five fungal DNA sequences in the classrooms | Indoor CO2 levels were 492 ppm (range 380–690 ppm) in all classrooms with open windows. Fungal DNA and cat allergens were common in the studied Malaysian schools, and there were a high prevalence of rhinitis and SBS symptoms among the students, especially headache (20.6%) and tiredness (22.1%). Total fungal DNA in swab samples was significantly associated with rhinitis, ocular symptoms, and tiredness. Positive associations were shown between Aspergillus versicolor DNA in Petri dish samples, ocular symptoms, and tiredness. The level of the mycotoxin verrucarol in swab samples was positively associated with tiredness. Streptomyces DNA in swab samples and Petri dish samples were negatively associated with tiredness. Mycotoxins may be ubiquitous in tropical indoor environments | [40] |
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| 10 | France | Aerosolization of mycotoxins after growth of toxinogenic fungi on wallpaper. No specific sampling location was mentioned | This study investigated mycotoxin production by Penicillium brevicompactum, Aspergillus versicolor, and Stachybotrys chartarum during their growth on wallpaper and the possible subsequent aerosolization of produced mycotoxins from contaminated substrates | Findings showed that mycophenolic acid, sterigmatocystin, and macrocyclic trichothecenes (sum of 4 major compounds) could be produced at levels of 1.8, 112.1, and 27.8 mg/m2, respectively, on wallpaper, and part of the produced toxins could be aerosolized from substrate. The propensity to aerosolization differed according to the fungal species. Particles were aerosolized from wallpaper contaminated with P. brevicompactum when air velocity of just 0.3 m/s was applied, where S. chartarum required 5.9 m/s, while A versicolor was intermediate at 2 m/s. Quantification of the toxic content revealed the association with particles of size equal to or higher than 3 μm, which may correspond to spores. Some macrocyclic trichothecenes (especially satratoxin H and verrucarin J) can also be found on smaller particles | [32] |
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| 11 | Denmark | A water-damaged daycare in the greater Copenhagen area provided fungal biomass and settled dust samples | For known and provisionally identified chemicals, an ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) approach was established using UHPLC-quadruple time-of-flight (QTOF) screening of fungal culture extracts, wall scrapings, and reference standards | This method discovered 12 Stachybotrys metabolites, which were measured using either real standards or standards that were similar to authentic standards. The two recognized chemotypes, S and A, coexisted in samples taken from S. chartarum-infected walls. A link between mycotoxin concentrations found on contaminated surfaces and in settled dust was established. Results from one dust sample collected from water-damaged room contained 10 pg/cm2 macrocyclic trichothecenes (roridin E). Primarily, more than one spirocyclic drimane was detected in dust where up to 600 pg/cm2 was detected in the water-damaged room and 340 pg/cm2 was detected in the adjacent room. They could be attractive candidates for exposure indicators because of their widespread dispersion in detectable concentrations in dust | [31] |
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| 12 | France | Air samples were taken from several locations in France, including mechanical-biological treatment plants, large-scale industrial composting operations, and a material recovery facility | The purpose of this research was to find out how much airborne aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A, gliotoxin, and sterigmatocystin were present in waste recycling and recovery facilities, as well as the health risks that came with it. Using ultrahigh resolution mass spectrometry and ultraperformance liquid chromatography, targeted mycotoxins were measured in 94 air samples collected in five locations | The results revealed that just 11% of the samples could be quantified. Mechanical separation areas in mechanical-biological treatment facilities and the material recovery facility were used to measure aflatoxin B1 and sterigmatocystin. All the exposure levels were less than 1 ng·m−3. This is the first time sterigmatocystin exposure in waste management facilities has been quantified. In any of the air samples, ochratoxin A and gliotoxin were not detected. Approaches to assessing health risks did not reveal a serious hazard to employees’ health. Data did not support the requirement for specific preventative actions against the measured biological agent in the air | [23] |
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| 13 | Germany | Settled floor dust samples were collected from different sites in Germany: waste management units dealing with municipal waste or paper recycling and severe moisture damage/dampness problems in houses occupied by less than 5 people | The determination of many biological and anthropogenic contaminants in settled floor dust using LC-MS/MS and GC-MS technologies is described in this paper (SFD). The presence of both microbial and nonmicrobial volatile organic molecules was determined using the GC-MS technique. The goal of the targeted LC-MS/MS study is to identify species-specific secondary metabolites | In the SFD matrix, 30 of the 71 discovered volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are new to the database. The results showed that using “AMDIS and SpectConnect” together was helpful in evaluating and identifying prime volatile contaminants in complex environmental samples. Nonanal was found as a possible MVOC marker using principal component analysis (PCA) of peak areas of 18 microbial volatile organic compounds (MVOCs). When considering their possible other origins from paints and cosmetics, respectively, toluene and 1-tetradecanolshowed discriminative influence but are not considered MVOC indicators | [25] |
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