Emerging Risk Biomarkers in Cardiovascular Diseases and Disorders

Table 1

Important emerging risk biomarkers in cardiovascular disease and disorders.

Name of disease	Effects	Risk score	Biomarker	References
Homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia	Premature cardiovascular morbidity and mortality	10–20%	Total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol
Hypertriglyceridemia/; hypertriglyceridemia	Elevated levels of Lp(a)	20%	Lipid profile
Chronic kidney disease	Elevated levels of Lp(a)	10%	Lipid profile
Cholelithiasis	Gall stone formation due to cholesterol and salts	20%	LDL cholesterol and small dense LDL particles
Hypercholesterolemia	Very high CVD risks	20%	LDL cholesterol and small dense LDL particles
Atherosclerosis	Arterial obstruction, chest pain	20–25% ABCA1 efflux	Polyunsaturated fat (PUFA) and carbohydrates, serum -glutamyl transferase activity, blood genomic profiling, and 47 integrin (LPAM-1)	[6, 7, 45–48]
Coronary heart disease	Monocytosis, high diabetics, hypertension, and chronic kidney diseases	20%,	Impaired sterol efflux, efflux capacity of high-density lipoprotein, HDL), myeloperoxidase increasing circulating HDL	[7]
Hyperglycaemia or type 1 diabetes	CVD and mortality	25%,	(TC), (TG), HDL, LDL, and anthropometric and biochemical parameters	[8]
Dyslipidemia	Hypoperfusion, high inflammation, and low BP	10%	TC, (TG), HDL, LDL, and anthropometric and biochemical parameters	[8, 42]
Atherosclerotic peripheral arterial disease	Prevalent, morbid, and mortal diseases	20% Shortening of lumen	LDL cholesterol	[9]
Ischemic heart disease (IHD)	Endothelial dysfunction, vascular inflammation	10–20%	Lipids, cholesterol, calcium, and cellular debris	[11]
Diastolic dysfunction and diastolic heart failure	Asymptomatic hypertension	20%	Myocardial remodeling	[12]
Chronic heart failures	ADP-induced platelet aggregation, triglycerides, end-diastolic volume, end-diastolic dimension, and ventricular septal thickness death	15–20%	Lipidemic, hemostasiological, and hemodynamic indicators, Willebrand factor, and D-dimer,	[13]
Myocardial infarction	Very high morbidity, severe pain	20–25%	Circulating microRNAs level in patients	[17]
Lipid stress and storage	Influence cholesterol availability in lipid rafts in immune cells	High LDL/HDL cholesterol levels	Omega-3 Index	[15, 16, 18]
Neuronal dysfunction	Neuronal cell death and neuroinflammatory	10–15%	27-hydroxycholesterol, plasma HDL, N-acylethanolamines (NAEs)	[21]
Transient global cerebral ischemia	Cardiac arrest and cardiovascular problems	5–10%	-3 PUFAs	[22]
Hypoglycaemia	Cardiac implications	5–10%	Elevated levels of Lp(a) and low HDL cholesterol	[23]
Hypertriglyceridemia/coronary artery disease (CAD)/acute coronary syndrome	Severe effect on BMR and peripheral and cardiac circulation	5–10%	Altered serum lipid	[1, 33]
HDL metabolism disorders	Severe inflammation and pain	5–10%	Lipid droplets (LDs)	[24]
Nephrotic syndrome	Renal filtration chocked	5–10%	LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and Lp(a)
Fatal myocardial infarction and brain stroke	Cardiovascular risks, morbidity, and mortality in elderly men	20–25%	Fat-specific protein Fsp27, fat storage-inducing transmembrane (FIT) proteins, seipin,and ADP-ribosylation factor 1-coat protein complex I	[24]
Systemic lupus erythematosus	Problem of PCV and hemoglobin	5%	Factors, proteins, ions, and stimulators of heart muscles	[34]
Acute myocardial infarction	Death of part of myocardial muscles, central chest pain, and severe crushing	20–25%	Serum soluble ST2 and interleukin-33	[36, 37]
Hypertension and dyslipidemia, hypercholesterolemia	Cardiovascular risk factors	15–20%	Total cholesterol and low-density lipoproteins	[41]
SCVRs	Tachyarrhythmias, bradyarrhythmias	5–10%	BP and LDL-C, high BMI	[43]
Hyperhomocysteinemia	High TC and pathogenesis	5%	LDL-C, HDL-C, TG, ApoAI, and ApoB Lp(a)	[44]
AVDs, type 2 diabetes, or metabolic syndrome	Increased levels of triglycerides, low levels of high density lipoprotein cholesterol, and postprandial lipemia	20–25%	MetS	[49, 50]
Procardiovascular risks, cardiovascular risks	Inflammation, obesity, and thrombosis	5–10%	Sedentary behavior, -trace protein from GFR marker	[38, 40, 51]
Metabolic lipid disorders	Circulatory dysfunctions, high BP, peripheral pain, and high or low BMR	5–10%	MALDI-MS, imaging and lipidomics for clinical diagnosis, and proteome analysis	[52, 53]
Ischemic heart disease	Circulatory dysfunctions	Smoking, hypertension, age, family history	Endothelial dysfunction, monocyte accumulation, endothelial apoptosis, and thrombus formation	[54]
Low HDL-C syndromes	Increased risk of CAD	5%	Sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase 1 and glucocerebrosidase	[55]
Hypothyroidism and gall stone	Severe pain, inflammation	5%	TSH level and sodium and potassium salts	[56]
Multiple CVDs, diabetes, stroke, and recurrent ischaemia syndrome	Hepatic inflammation due to common carotid intima-media thickness	10–20%	Multiple biomarkers, vascular imaging	[57, 58]
Angina pectoris	Obesity, arterial thickness, BMI and respiration rate, and severe chest pain	10–20%	Coronary angiography	[24]
Antiphospholipid syndrome	Venous thrombosis	5%	microRNAs	[59, 60]
Myocardial infarction	Pregnancy associated plasma protein-A (PAPP-A in serum)	15%	Severe blood pressure changes, central chest pain, and silent or knocking angina	[61]