Phytosynthesized Nanoparticles as Novel Antifungal Agent for Sustainable Agriculture: A Mechanistic Approach, Current Advances, and Future Directions

Table 1

In vitro: antifungal potential and their mode of action of various phytosynthesized nanoparticles.

Plant name	Extract	NPs	Size and shape	Fungal strain	Inhibition zone/MIC	Mode of action	References
Beta vulgaris	Leaves	ZnO	20 ± 2 nm spherical	Aspergillus niger	8 mm	Inactivate the cellular metabolic activities by disrupting the cellular organelles.	[55, 56]
Cinnamomum tamala
Cinnamomum verum
Brassica oleracea
				Candida albicans	8 mm	Disrupt the genetic material eventually causing cell death.
Nyctanthes arbortristis	Flower	ZnO	20 ± 2 nm spherical	Alternaria alternate	64 µg/mL	Interact with the outer surface of the plasma membrane when they come into contact with fungal cells. The structure of the plasma membrane is disrupted, and the permeability of the membrane is altered. The disruption of membrane structure and subsequent accumulation of NPs in the cytoplasm impede critical cell growth processes.	[57]
				Aspergillus niger	16 µg/mL
				Botrytis cinerea	128 µg/mL
				Fusarium oxysporum	64 µg/mL
				Penicillium expansum	128 µg/mL
Salvia officinalis	Leaves	ZnO	26.14 nm spherical	C. albicans SC5314	13 ± 3 mm	The suppression of ergosterol production and the loss of membrane integrity appeared to be the origins of antifungal activity.	[58]
				C. albicans 4175	14 ± 2 mm
				C. albicans 5112	11 ± 2 mm
Cinnamomum camphora	Leaves	ZnO	21.13 nm spherical	Alternaria alternate	20 mg/L	Protein and nucleic acid leakage.	[59]
Pterocarpus santalinus	Wood	ZnO	15–25 nm spherical	C. albicans	9 mm	Inactivate sulfhydryl groups which leads to produce insoluble compounds in cell wall and eventually degrade membrane-bounded enzymes, proteins, and lipids that cause cell death.	[60]
					14 mm
					20 mm
					12 mm
Ziziphus nu mmularia	Leaf	ZnO	17.33 nm	Candida spp.	9 mm	Produce intracellular production-free radicals such as hydroxyl, singlet oxygen, superoxide, and nitric oxide that may enter into nuclear membrane and damage DNA which cause irreversible chromosomal damage eventually cell death.	[61]
					10 mm
			Spherical		11 mm
					12 mm
			Irregular		14 mm
					16 mm
Momordica charantia	Fruit	CuO	245 nm spherical	Trichophyton rubrum	31.66 mm	They have a stronger affinity for amines and carboxyl groups on fungal cell surfaces, and their huge surface area allows for better interaction with the fungus.	[62]
Bougainvillea glabra	Flower	CuO	5–20 nm spherical	Aspergillus niger	4-5 mm	Through their surfaces, penetrate into fungus’ cell membrane and interrupt the cellular activities.	[63]
Celastrus paniculatus	Leaves	CuO	2−10 nm spherical	F. oxysporum	76.29 ± 1.52	Affect macromolecule DNA, its replication, and protein synthesis, leading to fungal death.	[64]
Citrus medica	Fruit	CuO	33 nm spherical	F. culmorum	33 mm	Produce pits in the membrane, which cause cellular components to leak out and finally cause cell death. Oxidative stress appears to be on the rise.	[65]
				F. oxysporum	28 mm
				F. graminearum	20 mm
Syzygium aromaticum	Bud	CuO	20 nm spherical	Penicillium spp.	6 mm	Enter the cell wall, causing cellular component leakage and, eventually, cell death.	[66]
Persea americana	Seed	Cu	42−90 nm spherical	A. niger	9 mm	Enzymes degradation and denaturation leads to cell death.	[67]
				A. fumigatus	11 mm
				F. oxysporum	8 mm
Falcariavulgaris	Leaves	Cu	20−25 nm spherical	C. albicans	30.6 mm	Inhibits fungal growth by producing ROS and causes hyphae lysis.	[68]
				C. glabrata	30.8 mm
				C. guilliermondii	33.4 mm
				C. krusei	34.8 mm
Cassia fistula	Leaves	CuO	2−38 nm spherical	Fusarium oxysporum	91.9 ± 0.16%	Deformation of fungal cell, membrane disruption, lipid peroxidation, protein, and enzymes denaturation.	[69]
Ligustrum lucidum	Leaf	Ag	13 nm spherical	Setosphaeria turcica	200 μg/mL	Fungal hyphae distortion was found.	[70]
Psidium guajava	Leaves	Ag	20–35 nm spherical	Rhizopus oryzae	12.42 ± 0.11  mm	The cell became dysfunctional. NPs reach the cytoplasm and interact with sulfur-containing proteins and enzymes, interfering with DNA replication depending on the level of membrane damage. More easily access the cytoplasm or interact and disrupt cell membranes due to structural variations.	[71]
				Aspergillus niger	10.78 ± 0.18  mm
				Saccharomyces cerevisiae	9.71 ± 0.21  mm
Panax ginseng	Roots	Ag	50–90 nm spherical	F. graminearum	47–51 μg/mL	Invading the fungal cell and causing damage to the cell wall and other cellular components.	[72]
				F. avenaceum
				F. poae
				F. sporotrichioides
Melia azedarach	Leaves	Ag	18–30 nm spherical	Verticillium dahlia	51 μg/mL	By destroying membrane integrity, affecting the function of membrane-bound enzymes involved in the respiratory chain.	[73]
Citrus limetta	Peel	Ag	18 nm spherical	Candida albicans	15 ± 0.75 mm	Cell blebs and a thick exudate deposition around the cell were induced by AgNPs, indicating intracellular material leaking.	[74]
Ocimum sanctum	Leaves	Ag	0–50 nm spherical	Candida tropicalis	2 mm	Interaction with cytoplasm resulted in cell membrane damage.	[75]
				C. krusei	1 mm
				C. kefyr	5 mm
				A. niger	3 mm
				A. flavus	1 mm
				A. fumigatus	2 mm
Allium saralicum	Leaves	Ag	20–40 nm spherical	C. albicans	33.8 ± 0.44 mm	It has a number of compounds that work synergistically to prevent microbial infections. As a result, this causes significant harm to the fungal cell, resulting in its death.	[76]
				C. glabrata	36.2 ± 1.3 mm
				C. parapsilosis	35.2 ± 1.3 mm
				C. krusei	40.6 ± 1.34 mm
				C. guilliermondii	43.6 ± 1.14 mm
Aloe barbadensis	Leaves	Ag	70 nm cubical, rectangular and spherical	Aspergillus spp.	21.8 ng/mL	Silver nanoparticles harmed not only fungal hyphae but also conidial germination, induced various deformations such as cell membrane structure, and inhibited the normal budding process of both fungal strain most likely owing to the degradation of membrane integrity.	[77]
				Rhizopus spp.
Malva parviflora	Leaves	Ag	50.6 nm spherical	Helminthosporium rostratum	88.6%	The nanoparticles were able to enter the plasma membrane, and hindered the normal functioning of proteins in the cell membrane, causing the cells to collapse.	[78]
				Fusarium solani	81.1%
				Fusarium oxysporum	80.7%
				Alternaria alternate	83.0%
Rhamnus virgate	Leaves	AgO	Spherical,	Aspergillus flavus	14.05	Interaction of fungal hyphae, mycelia, and spores leads to inhibition of fungal cell growth.	[79]
	Aqueous	AgO	∼20	Aspergillus niger	56.25
	Ethanol		Cuboid	Mucor racemosus	112.5
			∼22 nm
Croton sparsiflorus	Leaves	Ag	16 nm spherical	Mucor spp.	0.1 cm	By interacting with electron phosphorous and sulfur-containing molecules like DNA, they penetrate within the fungus and cause harm.	[80]
				Tricoderma spp.	0.1 cm
				Aspergillus niger	0.1 cm
Vetiveria zizanioides, Cannabis sativa	Roots, leaves	Au	10–35 nm spherical	Penicillium spp.	34 mm	May have diffused readily across the cell membrane to the interior of the cell, causing DNA synthesis, repair, and replication to be slowed, resulting in cell death.	[81]
				Aspergillus spp.	29 mm
				Aspergillus flavus	34 mm
				Aspergillus fumigates	34 mm
				Fusarium spp.	29 mm
				Mucor spp.	29 mm
Brassica oleracea	Flower buds	Au	12–22 nm colloidal	Aspergillus flavus	5, 7, 9  mm	It simply binds to the cell wall and causes damage and cell death.	[82]
				Aspergillus niger	5, 8, 9  mm
				Candida albicans	5, 7, 12  mm
Allium sativum	Cloves	Au	7–21 nm spherical	C. albicans	13.52 µg/mL	ROS generation altered fungal cell shape and morphology that leads to cell membrane damage and eventually cause cell death.	[83]
				C. tropicalis	39.00 µg/mL
				C. crusei	19.00 µg/mL
				C. guilliermondii	19.00 µg/mL
A. muricata	Leaves	Au	25.5 nm spherical	A. flaws	31 mm	Direct contact with pathogens and cause DNA breakage and eventually cell death.	[84]
				C. albicans	42 mm
				F. oxysperium	50 mm
				P. camemeri	66 mm