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Year/Period | Milestone |
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1905 | Starling introduces the word hormone and the concept of chemical messengers |
1911 | Mammalian thyroid extracts shown to induce amphibian metamorphosis |
1919 | Thyroxine and cortisone extracted and chemically characterized by Kendall |
1920–1935 | Effects of thyroid hormone on tissue and whole body respiration and metabolic functions |
1925–45 | Isolation and characterization of pituitary protein hormones |
1935–50 | Hormone-enzyme interactions thought to explain hormone action |
1941–55 | Insulin and other hormones shown to regulate transport processes |
1955–62 | Thyroxine thought to act by uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation |
1956 | Discovery of cyclic AMP by Sutherland and the concept of “second messenger” |
1960 | Ecdysteroids induce chromosomal puffing during insect development—first indication of hormone action at the nucleus |
1962 | Oestradiol shown to bind to nuclear proteins. First, indication of nuclear receptors |
1962–66 | Steroid and thyroid hormones and retinoids selectively regulate protein synthesis and transcription |
1975–85 | Protein hormone receptors located in cell membranes identified as homologues of c-erbB oncogene; protein phosphorylation cascades identified |
1979–89 | Steroid/thyroid/retinoid receptors cloned as a large family of c-erbA-related transcription factors interacting with target genes and modifying chromatin structure |
1990s | Crystal structures for many hormone receptors and partners. Transgenesis and mutagenesis of receptors in vivo |
1996 | Coactivators and corepressors modulate gene expression by TR and other nuclear receptors |
1998 | Phosphorylation, acetylation, and methylation of TR and other nuclear receptors, histones, and chromosomal proteins |
2002–2010 | Convergence of hormonal signals via membrane and nuclear receptors. Emergence of concepts of systems biology, bioinformatics and gene, and metabolic networking applicable to hormone action |
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