Pivotal Roles of GM-CSF in Autoimmunity and Inflammation

Figure 1

The differentiation of GM-CSF-producing CD4⁺ T cells and cytokine networks. Activated macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs) produce proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-23, IL-1β, and IL-6, which can promote the differentiation of Th17 and Th1/17 cells, leading to more GM-CSF production from Th1/17 cells. Increased levels of GM-CSF upregulate further production of proinflammatory cytokines from macrophages/DCs, creating a positive feedback loop. Activated macrophages/DCs also produce proinflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1β and TNFα, which stimulate the production of GM-CSF from resident tissue cells, including endothelial cells, epithelial cells, fibroblast, or chondrocytes.