Enhancement of Executive Functions but Not Memory by Multidomain Group Cognitive Training in Patients with Parkinson’s Disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Multicenter Randomized Controlled Trial
Table 4
Regression analyses: predictors for intervention success.
Model
Analysis
F-test
R2 (adjusted R2)
Standardized coefficients (β) of significant predictors
Baseline level
Age at baseline
Education in years
UPDRS-3 at baseline
LEDD at baseline
ApoE4 carrier
Cognitive training
Memory
ROCFT delayed recalla
ITT
F (6, 25) = 2.688;
0.392 (0.246)
−0.506↓
—
—
—
—
—
PP
F (6, 22) = 3.618;
0.497 (0.359)
−0.583↓
—
—
—
−0.373†↓
−0.335†↓
Executive functions
Executive functions mean scorea
ITT
F (6, 22) = 2.673;
0.422 (0.264)
−0.446↓
—
—
—
—
—
PP
n.s.
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
Semantic word fluencya
ITT
F (6, 25) = 2.643;
0.388 (0.241)
−0.398↓
—
—
—
0.493↑
—
PP
F (6, 23) = 2.865;
0.428 (0.278)
−0.478↓
—
—
—
0.546↑
—
Phonemic word fluencya
ITT
F (6, 25) = 3.595;
0.463 (0.334)
−0.587↓
0.405†↑
—
−0.507↓
0.423↑
0.473↑
PP
F (6, 22) = 3.660;
0.500 (0.363)
−0.592↓
—
−0.340†↓
−0.440↓
0.472↑
0.500↑
MCST categoriesa
ITT
F (6, 22) = 2.797;
0.433 (0.278)
−0.562↓
−0.374†↓
—
—
—
—
PP
F (6, 20) = 2.837;
0.460 (0.298)
−0.580↓
—
—
—
—
—
Key searcha
ITT
F (6, 25) = 2.778;
0.400 (0.256)
−0.660↓
—
—
—
—
—
PP
F (6, 23) = 2.651;
0.409 (0.255)
−0.660↓
—
—
—
—
—
Working memory
Working memory mean scorea
ITT
F (6, 25) = 2.705;
0.394 (0.248)
−0.622↓
—
—
—
—
—
PP
F (6, 23) = 2.670;
0.411 (0.257)
−0.633↓
—
—
—
—
—
Digit span backward (WAIS)a
ITT
F (6, 25) = 5.311;
0.560 (0.455)
−0.729↓
—
—
—
—
—
PP
F (6, 23) = 5.700;
0.598 (0.493)
−0.744↓
—
—
—
—
—
Visuocognition
Visuocognition mean scorea
ITT
F (6, 25) = 5.052;
0.548 (0.440)
−0.548↓
0.334†↑
—
—
—
—
PP
F (6, 23) = 4.770;
0.554 (0.438)
−0.552↓
—
—
—
—
—
ROCFT figure copya
ITT
F (6, 25) = 3.460;
0.454 (0.323)
−0.515↓
—
—
—
—
—
PP
F (6, 23) = 3.296;
0.462 (0.322)
−0.537↓
—
—
—
—
—
Benton judgment of line orientationa
ITT
F (6, 25) = 5.049;
0.548 (0.439)
−0.722↓
PP
F (6, 23) = 5.009;
0.567 (0.453)
−0.726↓
—
—
—
—
—
Language
Language mean scorea
ITT
F (6, 25) = 3.012;
0.420 (0.280)
−0.565↓
—
—
−0.441↓
—
0.463↑
PP
F (6, 23) = 2.786;
0.421 (0.270)
−0.555↓
—
—
−0.392↓
—
0.407†↑
Speech comprehension (ACL)a
ITT
F (6, 25) = 3.842;
0.480 (0.355)
−0.642↓
—
—
—
—
—
PP
F (6, 23) = 3.672;
0.489 (0.356)
−0.655↓
—
—
—
—
—
Noncognitive outcomes
BDI-IIb
ITT
F (6, 25) = 2.858;
0.407 (0.264)
−0.473↑
−0.365†↑
—
—
—
—
PP
F (6, 23) = 2.724;
0.415 (0.263)
−0.489↑
—
—
—
—
—
UPDRS-IIIb
ITT
F (5, 26) = 3.281;
0.387 (0.269)
−0.328†↑
—
0.403↓
—
—
—
PP
F (5, 24) = 4.583;
0.488 (0.382)
−0.372↑
—
0.467↓
—
−0.376†↑
—
Control group
Memory
CVLT total score trials 1–5a
ITT
F (6, 20) = 2.978;
0.472 (0.313)
−0.702↓
−0.456†↓
—
—
—
—
PP
F (6, 19) = 3.051;
0.491 (0.330)
−0.690↓
−0.429†↓
—
—
—
—
CVLT long delay free recall IIa
ITT
F (6, 20) = 3.219;
0.491 (0.339)
−0.362↓
−0.776↓
−0.637↓
—
—
—
PP
F (6, 19) = 3.042;
0.490 (0.329)
−0.346†↓
−0.777↓
−0.599↓
—
—
—
ROCFT delayed recalla
ITT
F (6, 21) = 4.872;
0.582 (0.462)
−0.527↓
0.462↑
—
—
—
—
PP
F 6, 20) = 4.640;
0.582 (0.456)
−0.523↓
0.459↑
—
—
—
—
Executive functions
Key searcha
ITT
F (6, 21) = 4.075;
0.538 (0.406)
−0.780↓
—
—
—
—
—
PP
F (6, 20) = 3.942;
0.542 (0.404)
−0.785↓
—
—
—
—
—
Visuocognition
Visuocognition mean scorea
ITT
F (6, 21) = 2.972;
0.459 (0.305)
−0.654↓
—
—
—
—
—
PP
F (6, 20) = 3.285;
0.496 (0.345)
−0.667↓
—
—
—
—
—
ROCFT figure copya
ITT
F (6, 21) = 5.361;
0.605 (0.492)
−0.796↓
—
—
—
—
—
PP
F (6, 20) = 5.638;
0.628 (0.512)
−0.802↓
—
—
—
—
—
Language
Language mean scorea
ITT
F (6, 21) = 9.890;
0.739 (0.664)
−0.847↓
—
—
—
—
—
PP
F (6, 19) = 9.417;
0.748 (0.669)
−0.856↓
—
—
—
—
—
Boston naming testa
ITT
F (6, 21) = 6.582;
0.653 (0.554)
−0.678↓
—
—
—
—
—
PP
F (6, 20) = 6.563;
0.663 (0.562)
−0.619↓
—
—
—
—
—
Speech comprehension (ACL)a
ITT
F (6, 21) = 25.963;
0.881 (0.847)
−0.900↓
—
—
—
−0.196↓
—
PP
F (6, 19) = 23.387;
0.881 (0.843)
−0.899↓
—
—
—
−0.187†↓
—
Dependent variables are defined as Δposttest − pretest; only those regression models that reached statistical significance at are presented; for each significant regression model, standardized regression coefficients are reported for predictors that have reached statistical significance only; †;;;. ACL, Aphasia Check List; ApoE, apolipoprotein E; BDI, Beck Depression Inventory; CVLT, California Verbal Learning Test; ITT, intention-to-treat analysis; LEDD, levodopa equivalent daily dose; MCST, Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test; PP, per-protocol analysis; ROCFT, Rey–Osterrieth Complex Figure Test; UPDRS, Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale; WAIS, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. aHigher change scores indicate higher training gains; blower change scores indicate higher training gains. ↓Lower predictor level predicts higher training gains. ↑Higher predictor level predicts higher training gains.